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2D Echo

A 2D echocardiogram (2D echo) uses ultrasound to create moving images of your heart chambers, valves, and pumping strength. It is not a blood test—a probe on the chest builds the pictures, often with color Doppler to sho…

A1c Test

The HbA1c (A1c) test reflects average blood sugar over roughly the past 2–3 months. It is usually done from a blood sample and helps diagnose or monitor diabetes. A1c is not the same as a one-day fasting glucose. Anemia,…

Abdominal Ultrasound

Abdominal ultrasound uses sound waves to image the liver, gallbladder, pancreas, spleen, kidneys, and major blood vessels. It does not use ionizing radiation. It is commonly done for pain, jaundice, suspected stones, or…

Abnormal Kidney Function Tests Kfts

Kidney function tests (KFT) usually include creatinine, urea/BUN, electrolytes, and often eGFR. "Abnormal KFT" means a value is outside the reference range—it is not a disease name by itself. Dehydration, medicines, infe…

Abnormal Liver Function Tests Lfts

LFT panels typically include ALT, AST, ALP, bilirubin, albumin, and sometimes GGT. Values outside the reference range are called "abnormal LFTs"—a signal for further evaluation, not a diagnosis. Viral hepatitis, medicine…

Acth Stimulation Test

The ACTH stimulation test checks whether the adrenal glands can produce enough cortisol after synthetic ACTH is given. It is used when adrenal insufficiency is suspected. This is a timed, dynamic test requiring blood sam…

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Lipodystrophy

Lipodystrophy is a group of disorders marked by abnormal body-fat distribution—either too little fat in some areas, excess fat in others, or both. Forms range from generalized lipodystrophy (fat lost from most of the bod…

Lipohypertrophy

Lipohypertrophy is localized enlargement of fat tissue, most often at sites where insulin is injected repeatedly. The area may feel rubbery or firm, look swollen or lumpy, and become less sensitive—so people keep injecti…

Lipoma

A lipoma is a slow-growing, benign (non-cancerous) lump made of fat cells, usually sitting between the skin and the muscle underneath. It typically feels soft or doughy and may slide slightly under finger pressure. Lipom…

Liposarcoma

Liposarcoma is a malignant soft-tissue sarcoma that arises from fat cells (adipocytes). It can appear in the limbs, trunk, or deep abdomen (including the retroperitoneum behind the abdominal cavity). It is uncommon—rough…

Lipschutz Ulcer

Lipschütz ulcer (also called Lipschütz’s ulcer or ulceratio vulvae acuta) is a rare, non–sexually transmitted condition marked by the sudden appearance of painful genital ulcers. It most often affects adolescent and youn…

Lisfranc Fracture

A Lisfranc fracture is an injury to the midfoot involving the Lisfranc (tarsometatarsal) joint complex—the connections between the metatarsal bones and the tarsal bones that help maintain the arch and midfoot stability.…

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Zap X Gyroscopic Radiosurgery System

The ZAP-X gyroscopic radiosurgery system delivers high-dose focused radiation to selected brain and head–neck lesions using a self-shielded platform that rotates beam angles to spare healthy tissue—non-surgical “radiosur…

Whipple Procedure

The Whipple procedure (pancreaticoduodenectomy) removes pancreatic head, duodenum, and related bile duct/gallbladder tissue then reconnects digestive paths. This patient-language page covers why, hospital course, and rec…

When are Arthroscopies Performed

This guide focuses when keyhole joint surgery is considered—symptoms and imaging thresholds—rather than how arthroscopy is done on general arthroscopy pages. Indications differ for knee, shoulder, hip, ankle, wrist. Educ…

What is Tubectomy Indications Techniques Recovery

Tubectomy (fallopian tube ligation/salpingectomy family) permanently prevents pregnancy by blocking or removing tubes. This guide stresses indications, technique comparison (minilap/laparoscopy/postpartum), and recovery—…

What is Small Bowel Transplant When a Small Bowel Transplant is Needed

Small bowel transplant replaces failing intestine with donor bowel when long-term TPN causes life-limiting complications or intestine cannot be saved—distinct from bowel resection alone. Highly specialized and rare; limi…

What is Av Fistula WHY it is Done

An arteriovenous (AV) fistula connects an artery to a vein to create a strong vein for repeated hemodialysis needle access. This page explains what it is and why—not the detailed creation/surgery step pages. Fistula does…

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Abdominal Distension

Abdominal distension, or bloating, is a common condition where the abdomen feels full, tight, and swollen. It can be caused by various factors, ranging from overeating to more serious underlying health conditions. While…

Adult Jaundice

Jaundice occurs when there is an excess of bilirubin, a yellow pigment produced by the breakdown of red blood cells. Normally, the liver processes bilirubin, which is then excreted in bile. When the liver cannot process…

Adverse Childhood Experiences

Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) are stressful or harmful events during childhood — such as abuse, neglect, household violence, or caregiver substance use — that can shape long-term emotional and physical health. ACE…

Agitation

Agitation is a state of intense restlessness or excitement, often accompanied by anxiety, fear, or heightened emotions. It can manifest in various ways, including physical movements, erratic speech, or rapid thinking. Wh…

Allodynia

Introduction: Allodynia is a condition where a person experiences pain from stimuli that usually do not cause pain, such as light touch, clothing brushing against the skin, or even a gentle breeze. It is an abnormal pain…

Alogia

Introduction: Alogia is a symptom characterized by poverty of speech, where a person has limited verbal output. It is most commonly seen in conditions like schizophrenia but can also occur in other psychiatric and neurol…

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